No full stop in Evolution

PEOPLE HAVE continued to evolve since leaving the ancestral homeland in northeastern Africa 50,000 years ago, both through the random process known as genetic drift and through natural selection.

Recent research indicates we have spread globally and evolved locally the human. genome bears many fingerprints in places where natural selection has recently remoulded the human clay, researchers have found, as people on the various continents adapted to new diseases, climates, diets and, perhaps, behavioural demands.

A striking feature of the changes: they are local. The genes found in one continent-based population or race vary from those that occur in others.

These genes so far make up a small fraction of all human genes. The concept of race having a biological basis is controversial, and most geneticists are reluctant to describe it that way.

But a notable instance of recent natural selection is the emergence of lactose tolerance - the ability to digest lactose in adulthood - among the cattle-herding people of northern Europe 5,000 years ago. Lactase is usually switched off after weaning.

Last year, Sarah Tishkoff of the University of Maryland tested 43 ethnic groups in East Africa and found three mutations, all different from the European one, that keep the lactase gene switched on in adulthood.

Researchers studying single genes have found evidence for recent evolutionary change in genes that mediate conditions like skin color, resistance to malaria and salt retention. Variants of two genes involved in hearing have become universal, one in Chinese, the other in Europeans.

Last year, researchers at the University of Chicago searched for genes under natural selection in Africans, Europeans and East Asians. In each race, 200 genes showed signals of selection suggesting that the populations were adapting to local challenges. A study led by S. Williamson of Cornell University in PLoS Genetics found 100 genes under selection in Chinese, African-Americans and European-Americans.

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Hope of cure for fatal brain diseases

SCIENTISTS HAVE developed a revolutionary new treatment for neurological diseases that uses an injection to tweak the way genes work in the brain.

The research raises hopes for a new era of effective treatments for some of the most debilitating - and so far incurable - brain conditions, including cancer and Alzheimer's disease.

Tests of the therapy at Harvard Medical School in Boston found that a simple injection was able to cure mice of a potentially fatal brain disease. The re- searchers behind the breakthrough are planning further tests and expect to conduct human trials within five years.

The team used a powerfill new technique called RNA interference to silence faulty genes or viruses that cause brain diseases. The principle of gene silencing is simple: scientists build tiny strands of the genetic material called RNA which, when injected into cells, latch on to problematic genes and smother them, effectively shutting them down.

Until now, attempts to use gene silencing to treat brain diseases have been severely hampered for two reasons. First, many drugs injected into the body are barred from getting into the brain by a membrane that protects it from viruses and microbes in the bloodstream.

Because of this, most gene-silencing treatments require nijections directly into the brain - a second serious drawback because it involves a dangerous surgical procedure and only delivers the treatment to the cells at the end of the needle.

The Harvard team, led by Man- junath Swamy, found a simple way around these problems. They made strands of therapeutic RNA in the lab and mixed them with a tiny part of the rabies virus which helps it get into the brain and infect cells. The key-like fragment is harmless on its own.

Researchers squirted some of the mixture on to a dish of nerve cells and found that the strands of RNA they had created were smuggled inside the cells, where they shut down certain genes. The team tested the therapy on mice that had been infected with a fatal brain disease, viral encephalitis. The scientists found that regular injections of RNA mixed with the rabies virus fragment shut down genes in around half of the cells in the animals' brains and stopped the disease from spreading. Of the mice that received injections, 80 per cent were cured, while those that were untreated died, the team reported in Nature.

"We expect this work to move quite fast now, because there is so much interest in this kind of treatment. Potentially, it could be used for a wide variety of neurodegenerative diseases, but also for controlling cancers that spread to the brain," said Professor Swamy.

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Rules of sleep hygiene

Do not go to bed until you are drowsy. Most insomniacs go to bed before they are sleepy in an attempt to catch up on lost sleep time and to relieve their sense of tiredness and fatigue. However, typically, when they go to bed they don't sleep, but worry about issues in their daily lives and, in particular, their anticipated poor sleep ahead. This worry causes emotional arousal that prevents the passive sleep process from occurring. Some insomniacs have difficulty distinguishing between fatigue and drowsiness, and may need help in making the distinction between these two states, so that they will go to bed when Delaying going to bed until drowsy not only increases the chances of falling asleep, but also strengthens the association between bed and sleepiness.

Get up at the same time each morning, including weekends:
Insomniacs should always place the alarm clock away from the bed so that the sleeper must get up to turn it off. Maintaining a reasonably early awakening time is one of the important time cues for the 24-hour circadian sleep-wake rhythm. Breaking this rule causes sleep disruption in both good and poor sleepers. The common experience of "Sunday night insomnia, Monday morning blues" is caused by ignoring this rule. The sleeper goes to bed at progressively later times during the weekend, and sleeps in the following morning. By Sunday night, the adapted circadian rhythm is expecting to begin the sleep period beginning at, say, 1:00 am and end at 9:00 am. However, on Sunday night the sleeper wants to go to sleep at 11:00 pm and awaken for work at 7:00 but is unable to fall asleep until the reset time of 1:00 am. Thus, he or she awakens, relatively sleep deprived, at 7:00 with "the blues." read more.....

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The Hepatitis C virus (HCV)

The Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is a small (50 nm in size), enveloped, single-stranded, positive sense RNA virus in the family Flaviviridae. HCV mainly replicates within hepatocytes in the liver, although there is controversial evidence for replication in lymphocytes or monocytes. Circulating HCV particles bind to receptors on the surfaces of hepatocytes and subsequently enter the cells. Two putative HCV receptors are CD81 and human scavenger receptor class B1 (SR-BI). However, these receptors are found throughout the body. The identification of hepatocyte-specific cofactors that determine observed HCV liver tropism are currently under investigation.

HCV has a high rate of replication with approximately one trillion particles produced each day in an infected individual. Due to lack of proofreading by the HCV RNA polymerase, HCV also has an exceptionally high mutation rate, a factor that may help it elude the host's immune response.

Early studies of viral loads in eleven asymptomatically infected viral carriers (blood donors in 1989, prior to implementation of blood bank screening for HCV, and from whom the donated blood units were rejected because of elevated alanine transaminase (ALT) liver enzyme levels) indicated that asymptomatic viral loads in blood plasma varied between 100/mL and 50,000,000/mL.

Although hepatitis A, hepatitis B, and hepatitis C have similar names (because they all cause liver inflammation), these are distinctly different viruses both genetically and clinically. Unlike hepatitis A and B, there is no vaccine to prevent hepatitis C infection.
read more…..

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Ecstasy impairs memory

Ecstasy can cause lasting damage to the human brain, even if the drug is only taken for a short time. The memory of ecstasy users who were asked to remember lists of words was impaired.

Researchers compared the performance of the subjects before and after they first tried the drug and concluded that even low doses of the drug could have lasting effects on the brain.

The ideal experiment to investigate the effect of ecstasy on human memory would be to give the drug or a placebo to different participants at random. That would be unethical, so the next best thing would be to test non-drug users first, and then again if they decide to take the drug.

Research on animals has shown that ecstasy can cause long-lasting damage to neurons involved in processing serotonin, a chemical involved in controlling learning, memory, mood and other functions. In several studies a brain region called the hippocampus which is known to be involved in memory has shown up as being particularly badly affected.

A team led by Ben Schmand at the University of Amsterdam recruited 188 volunteers who had never tried the drug, but who said they would probably soon do so. The team tested their performance in a battery of psychological exercises, including tests of attention and memory.

Months later, the team went back to their volunteers and tested 58 who had since taken at least one ecstasy tablet. These subjects were matched against a similar number of controls of a similar age and history of drug use. On average, the subjects who had started to use the drug had taken around three pills in total.

Despite this low dosage, the researchers found a small but statistically significant drop in the volunteers' ability to remember words. This test involved reciting a list of 15 words and remembering the list 20 minutes later. Their performance in other tests was not hampered.

"Our data indicate that low doses of ecstasy are associated with decreased verbal memory function, which is suggestive for ecstasy-induced neurotoxicity," the authors write in the journal Archives of General Psychiatry.

"The main underlying factor seems to be a depletion of serotonin in ecstasy users, a depletion that might be reversible. Serotonin is involved in several cognitive functions, but might be especially relevant to learning and memory."

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How the brain grows Experts take a peek

Living Can you get smarter than a fifth-grader? Of course, but new research suggests some of the brain's basic building blocks for learning are nearing adult levels by age 11 or 12. It is the first finding from a study of how children's brains grow. The most interesting results are yet to come.

About 500 super-healthy newborns to teenagers, recruited from super-healthy families, are having periodic MRI scans of their brains as they grow up. They also get a battery of age-appropriate tests of such abilities as IQ, language skills and memory. The project, funded by the National Institutes of Health, is tricky work.

Move during an MRI, and the image blurs. Because scientists cannot sedate healthy children, they are having to get crafty to keep their subjects still. Tired toddlers are put in the scanners at naptime; mom squeezes in for a cuddle and earplugs help block the machines' noisy banging. Six-year-olds wear earphones and watch favourite videos beamed into the scanner.

The MRI images measure how different parts of the brain grow and reorganise throughout childhood. Overlap them with the children's shifting behavioural and intellectual abilities at each age, and scientists expect to produce a long-sought map of normal brain development in children representative of the diverse US population. On Friday, scientists were publishing a sneak peek at some surprising early results.

Performance on a variety of cognitive tasks — working memory, vocabulary, spatial recognition, reasoning, and calculation— rapidly improves between age 6 and 10, but then levels off. Children's Hospital Boston, who led the analysis published in the Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society. This is a snapshot of 6- to 18-year-olds' abilities during their first study visit. Results may change after researchers observe each child's progress with age and compare their MRI scans.

The adolescent brain is still growing. Indeed, the region responsible for things such as impulse control and moral judgment is the last to mature, sometime in the early 20s, said of the NIH's National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke.

The study did not evaluate those kinds of skills. "It's an incomplete picture," But the age finding does make sense, suggesting a foundation necessary for higher learning is in place by puberty, said an expert from the University of North Carolina School of Medicine."

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Mom's stress harms foetus

STRESS EXPERIENCED by a woman during pregnancy may affect her unborn baby as early as 17 weeks after conception, with potentially harmful effects on brain and development, according to new research.

The study is the first to show that unborn babies are exposed to their mother's stress hormones at such an early stage in pregnancy

The study's authors said they did not wish to "unduly worry pregnant women", but highlighted the need to lead a "healthy balanced lifestyle" to avoid general stress.

The findings come days after the government changed its advice to pregnant women and those trying to conceive, warning them to abstain from drinking alcohol.

Previous guidelines had said they could drink up to two small glasses of wine a week.

The change in advice, which government health advisers said was made to avoid confusion, rather than in response to new medical evidence, prompt- ed claims from some critics that pregnant women are increasingly becoming targets in an obsessively anti-risk culture.

Researchers in the latest study led by Professor Vivette Glover at Imperial College London and the consultant obstetrician Pampa Sarkar, from Wexham Park hospital, Berkshire, UK, measured levels of the stress hormone cortisol in 267 pregnant women.

Cortiso1, which is pumped into the blood when we become anxious, is good in the short term, as it helps the body to deal with a stressful situation, but long-term stress can cause tiredness, depression and make an individual more prone to illness.

Dr Sarkar said further research was needed into how high levels of stress in a mother affect the unborn baby "We are all a product of our developmental history," she added.

"Our research shows that the foetus is exposed to cortiso1 in the maternal blood, and we also demonstrated that at and above 17 weeks, the cortisol in amniotic fluid had a strong positive relationship with cortiso1 in maternal

Dr Sarkar continued, "We found that the strength of this correlation became stronger with increasing gestational age. We now need to carry out further research to unravel the mechanisms by which maternal stress affects the foetus, both during foetal life and through into childhood."

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Kids of smoking parents aren’t so healthy

Smoking habits in parents can remotely effect the health of their children who might suffer from respiratory problems later in their life, a study has said.

Children who do not show any signs of respiratory problems may still be experiencing damaging changes in their breathing process that could lead to lung disease later in life, according to a new study presented at the American Thoracic Society 2007 International Conference on Sunday.

Everyone knows that children whose parents smoke have more respiratory problems — more puffing, wheezing, cases of pneumonia — but until now we haven’t known if lung function is impaired in the children who don’t have any respiratory complaints or diagnosed lung problems,” researcher Bert Arets of University Medical Center Utrecht in the Netherlands said.

The study included 244 children from the age of 4 to 12 and without any history of lung or respiratory disease. They were divided into four groups according to the smoking pattern of their parents: persons who have never smoked, smoking after birth but not during pregnancy, during pregnancy but not after birth, and both before and after birth.

The researchers found that children of parents who smoke had significantly reduced lung function similar to that seen in smokers. Smoking after birth appeared to be more harmful than smoking during pregnancy.

The researchers have now expanded their study to include 2,000 healthy children of the parents who smoke. Earlier, a Dutch study pointed that exposure to second hand smoke is harmful for underweight babies.

Full-term babies with a low birth weight (5.5 pounds) have a significantly increased risk of developing respiratory symptoms such as coughing, wheezing and pulmonary infections up to age of five. The risk is greater if these children are exposed to second hand smoke.
The association between birth weight and respiratory symptoms decreased after age five and was not significant by age seven, the researchers found.

Analyzing data on more than 3,600 babies, the researchers found that during the first seven years of life, almost 39% of them had at least one wheezing episode, close to 52% had cough at night and more than 37% had a lower respiratory infection.

Apart from that, a Finnish study says persistent smokers may have higher risk of becoming depressed in comparison to non smokers. Smokers who quit have an elevated risk of depressive symptoms in short run. However, in long run this risk declines to the level of never smokers. Both completely smoke-free life style and successful smoking cessation seem to protect from depressive symptoms.

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Skimmed milk, straight from cow

Scientists have bred cows that produce skimmed milk and hope to establish herds of the cattle in order to meet the demands of health-conscious consumers.

The milk is also high in omega-3 oils, claimed to improve brain power, and contains polyunsaturated fat. The saturated fats found in normal milk are linked to increased risk of heart disease. The cows, which have a particular genetic mutation, were bred from a single female discovered by researchers when they screened milk from millions of cattle in New Zealand.

Butter from these cows has the extra advantage of being spreadable straight from the fridge, like margarine.

Scientists at ViaLactia, the Auckland-based biotech firm behind the £55 million research, have named the cow Marge. Russell Snell, ViaLactia’s chief scientist, said: “Marge looks like an ordinary Friesian cow but has three key differences. She produces a normal level of protein in her milk but substantially less fat, and the fat she does produce has much more unsaturated fat. She also produces milk with very high levels of omega-3 oils.” Marge was discovered in 2001 when ViaLactia’s researchers bought her from her owner for £120 and moved her to a secret location. read more....

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Virtual human puts docs inside patients

CANADIAN RESEARCHERS have developed the most detailed model of a human yet, a movable 4-D image that doctors can use to plan complex surgery or show patients what ailments look like inside their bodies.

Called CAVEman, the largerthan-life computer image encompasses more than 3,000 distinct body parts, all viewed in a booth that gives the image height, width and depth.

CAVEman also plots the passage of time - the fourth D.

Scientists can layer on the unique visuals of patients, such as magnetic resonance images, CAT scans and X-Rays, giving physicians high-resolution views of the inner workings of the body while it appears to float within arm's reach.

It will help researchers study the genetics of diseases such as cancer, diabetes, muscular sclerosis and Alzheimer's, said officials at the University of Calgary Faculty of Medicine, which has worked on the system for six years.

CAVEman is an offshoot of a 3-D virtual reality ‘Cave', a $5.5 million lab the Sun Center opened in 2002 in conjunction with Sun Microsystems Inc.

CAVEman, seen through 3-D glasses in a booth, appears to stand in front of the viewer. As in a video game, the controller can manipulate it and focus on body parts - skin, bones, muscles, organs and veins.

The closer the image gets, the further into the body the viewer appears to travel. It is difficult to resist trying to touch it. The image can also be loaded on to regular computers, to be viewed off site.

The medical community will benefit by being able to merge patients' diagnostic results in one place, allowing specialists to work together more closely.

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The knowledge of Genetics

Genetics is the science of heredity and variation in living organisms. Knowledge that desired characteristics were inherited has been implicitly used since prehistoric times for improving crop plants and animals through selective breeding. However, the modern science of genetics, which seeks to understand the mechanisms of inheritance, only began with the work of Gregor Mendel in the mid-1800s.

The genetic information of cellular organisms is contained within the chemical structure of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) molecules. Individually inherited traits, corresponding to regions in the DNA sequence, are called genes. Genes encode the information necessary for synthesizing proteins — complex molecules generally responsible for enzymatic reactions, synthesis, communication and structure within a cell. DNA sequence is transcribed into an intermediate RNA (ribonucleic acid) molecule, "messenger RNA", and ribosomes translate this sequence to form a chain of amino acids, thereby creating a protein molecule. It is through their proteins that most genes have a biological effect.

Genetic technologies
A variety of techniques exist for manipulating DNA in the laboratory. Restriction enzymes are a commonly used enzyme that cuts DNA at specific sequences, producing predictable fragments of DNA. The use of ligation enzymes allows these fragments to be stitched back together, and by ligating fragments of DNA together from different sources, researchers can recombinant DNA. Often associated with genetically modified organisms, recombinant DNA is commonly used in the context of plasmids — short circular DNA fragments with a few genes on them. By inserting plasmids into bacteria and growing those bacteria on plates of agar (to isolate clones of bacteria cells), researchers can clonally amplify the inserted fragment of DNA. read more…..

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How to care Oily skin

Oily skin is caused by over-active glands, which produce a substance called Asebum, a naturally healthy skin lubricant. When the skin produces too much sebum, it becomes thick and heavy in texture. Oily skin is characterized by shininess, pimples and blemishes.

Causes of Oily Skin

Heredity
Diet
Hormone levels
Pregnancy
Birth control pills
Cosmetics you use
Humidity and hot weather

The successful treatment of oily skin requires patience, since excessive oil production is a symptom of an internal problem. Therefore, a holistic approach is necessary. Results may be slow, and in extreme cases the client should be referred to a health professional. Although oiliness may not be completely eliminated, the condition can be improved and acne lesions avoided. This goal, together with making the skin look more attractive, should be the esthetician's objective. read more…

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Yoga boosts immunity against cancer

IN BREAST cancer survivors, the Iyengar method of yoga not only promotes psychological well-being, but seems to offer immune system benefits as well, according to research reported at the American Physiological Society meeting in Washington, DC. The Iyengar method, created by B K S Iyengar, “is considered to be one of the more active forms of yoga,” lead researcher and presenter Pamela E. Schultz from Washington State University, Spokane, said on Monday .

“It still has the meditative component, but it’s been shown to have a physical output equivalent to a moderate-intensity exercise,” she explained.

Schultz and colleagues randomly assigned 10 breast cancer survivors to eight weeks of Iyengar yoga (two classes and a solo session at home per week) and nine to a wait-list control group. The women had an average age of 61 years, were about four years out from initial cancer diagnosis and were being treated with hormone therapy None of the women had any prior experience with Iyengar yoga.

Psychosocial tests showed that the “demands of illness,” which reflects the burden of hardship of being a breast cancer survivor, fell in the yoga participants.

“Psychosocial variables indicated improved quality of life with Iyengar yoga,” Schultz said.
Importantly, these improvements correlated with decreased activation of an important immune system protein called NF-kB, which is a marker of stress in the body.

“So it’s possible,” Schultz said, “that decreased activation of NF-kB indicates decreased stress in the body, which would be a positive thing. NF-kB can be activated by any type of stress in the body, like physical stress and mental stress.” Schultz plans to continue her research by looking at different immune system proteins to see if they too show changes for the better, “which would confirm immune and psychosocial benefits of Iyen gar yoga”.

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You can do it, ten minutes of exercise a day

The word "fitness," and most people imagine demanding, time-consuming routines that seem incompatible with busy lives.

No wonder that nearly 60 percent of Americans fall short of the recommended daily activity levels, according to the latest government figures. As the late comedian Joey Adams once quipped: "If it weren't for the fact that the TV set and the refrigerator are so far apart, some of us wouldn't get any exercise at all."

The problem is that we are built to move. So the hours spent sitting in front of computers, watching television and stuck in traffic can take a toll not just on our waistlines but also on our backs, our hearts, our brains and our life expectancy.

You may not always be able to control how long you sit, but the posture you adopt in those sedentary moments can make a difference, as you can see in the graphic above.

Part of being fit is how you sit. A few simple adjustments can pay off. Strengthen the core muscles of your trunk, and you can help take the strain off your back. That may enable you to use your body better during active times.

The idea that activity is tied to good health is not new. Plato observed that inactivity "destroys the good condition of every human being, while movement and methodical physical exercise save it and preserve it."

In Victorian times, Edward Stanley, who served three terms as British prime minister, noted that "those who think they have not time for bodily exercise will sooner or later have to find time for illness." read more….

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Stem Cells

Stem cells are primal cells common to all multi-cellular organisms that retain the ability to renew themselves through cell division and can differentiate into a wide range of specialized cell types. Research in the human stem cell field grew out of findings by Canadian scientists Ernest A. McCulloch and James E. Till in the 1960s.

A stem cell is a primitive type of cell that can be coaxed into developing into most of the 220 types of cells found in the human body (e.g. blood cells, heart cells, brain cells, etc). Some researchers regard them as offering the greatest potential for the alleviation of human suffering since the development of antibiotics. Over 100 million Americans and two billion other humans worldwide suffer from diseases that may eventually be treated more effectively with stem cells or even cured. These include heart disease, diabetes, and certain types of cancer. read more…….

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Skin Care and skin treatment

In zootomy and dermatology, skin is an organ of the integumentary system made up of multiple layers of epithelial tissues that guard underlying muscles and organs. As the interface with the surroundings, it plays the most important role in protecting against pathogens. Its other main functions are insulation and temperature regulation, sensation and vitamin D and B synthesis. Skin is considered one of the most important parts of the body.

Many problems with a skin grow out stress. When you are nervous, sleep less, often forget to look after yourself, neglecting habitual cosmetic procedures, and drink not enough liquid which is necessary that the skin remained soft and smooth. The some people start to be scratched or touch the face more often. It increases probability of hit by it of pathogenic bacteria and serves as the reason of occurrence of "troubles". read more….

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Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions for the development and functioning of living organisms. All living things contain DNA genomes. A possible exception is a group of viruses that have RNA genomes, but viruses are not normally considered living organisms. The main role of DNA in the cell is the long-term storage of information. The genome is often compared to a set of blueprints, since it contains the instructions to construct other components of the cell, such as proteins and RNA molecules. The DNA segments that carry this genetic information are called genes, but other DNA sequences have structural purposes, or are involved in regulating the expression of genetic information.

In eukaryotes such as animals and plants, DNA is stored inside the cell nucleus, while in prokaryotes such as bacteria, the DNA is in the cell's cytoplasm. Unlike enzymes, DNA does not participate directly in most of the biochemical reactions it controls; rather, various enzymes act on DNA and copy its information into either more DNA, in DNA replication, or transcribe and translate it into protein. In chromosomes, chromatin proteins such as histones compact and organize DNA, which helps control its interactions with other proteins in the nucleus. read more ……

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Care and Feeding of your Brain

Like every other part of your body, you brain needs regular exercise to stay healthy. Experience can modify brain structure at every stage of life. Challenging activities can cause new brain cells to grow or make existing brain cells form new connections, which helps the brain to function better. "Choose something appealing and challenging".

Growth of Brain:
So the brain is boss, but it can't do it alone. It needs some nerves - actually a lot of them. And it needs the spinal cord, which is a long bundle of nerves inside your spinal column, the vertebrae that protect it. It's the spinal cord and nerves - known as the nervous system - that let messages flow back and forth between the brain and body.

• When you were born, your brain came with all the neurons it will ever have, but many of them were not connected to each other. When you learn things, the messages travel from one neuron to another, over and over. Eventually, the brain starts to create connections between the neurons, so things become easier and you can do them better and better.

• Chronic stress damages your immune system and makes your body less able to fight disease. It also releases hormones that can be beneficial in the short term but damage your brain if they are constantly present. So take a deep breath, relax, and find some permanent ways to simplify your life. You can further boost your immune system and your mental health by becoming good at something. "Older persons who pursue activities in which they experience a sense of control and mastery are healthier both physically and mentally than those who do not".

The Eight Pillars of Brain Health
• Safety
• Nutrition
• Exercise
• Mental Activity
• Sleep
• Stress
• Hormones
• Treatment of Existing Disease

Nourish your brain with a healthy diet
Like any high-performance machine, the brain needs top quality fuel:

• Your brain needs well-balanced, low cholesterol, low saturated diet.

• Timing is significant in nutrition. Studies have demonstrated the importance of a good breakfast.

• Protein and unsaturated fat is especially important for developing brains. Fish, a rich source of both, is sometimes called brain food.

• Your body converts long strings of amino acids in the protein you eat to individual amino acids that your brain converts to the specific proteins it needs.

• Your brain needs vitamins and minerals; they come from your diet.

• Research suggests anti-oxidant vitamins E and C protect the brain.

• Avoid excess food. Reducing calories can help slow age-related brain changes

• Enjoy caffeine and alcohol in moderation.

• As a general rule, good nutrition for the body is good nutrition for the brain.

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Breast Cancer Treatment

The mainstay of breast cancer treatment is surgery when the tumor is localized, with possible adjuvant hormonal therapy, chemotherapy, and/or radiotherapy. At present, the treatment recommendations after surgery (adjuvant therapy) follow a pattern. Depending on clinical criteria (age, type of cancer, size, metastasis) patients are roughly divided to high risk and low risk cases which follow different rules for therapy. Treatment possibilities include Radiation Therapy, Chemotherapy, Hormone Therapy, and Immune Therapy.

Information on Breast Cancer Treatments

Surgery
Depending on the staging and type of the tumor, just a lumpectomy (removal of the lump only) may be all that is necessary or removal of larger amounts of breast tissue may be necessary. Surgical removal of the entire breast is called mastectomy. Standard practice requires that the surgeon must establish that the tissue removed in the operation has margins clear of cancer, indicating that the cancer has been completely excised. If the tissue removed does not have clear margins, then further operations to remove more tissue may be necessary. This may sometimes require removal of part of the pectoralis major muscle which is the main muscle of the anterior chest wall.

Chemotherapy
Chemotherapy can be given both before and after surgery. Neo-adjuvant chemotherapy is used to shrink the size of a tumor prior to surgery. Adjuvant chemotherapy is given after surgery to reduce the risk of recurrence. Cancer cells usually grow more rapidly than normal cells, and chemotherapy drugs work against them by interfering with their growth and reproduction.

Radiation Therapy
Radiation therapy consists of the use of high powered X-rays or gamma rays (XRT) that precisely target the area that is being treated. These X-rays or gamma rays are very effective in destroying the cancer cells that might recur where the tumor was removed. These X-rays are delivered by a machine called a linear Accelerator or LINAC. Alternatively, the use of implanted radioactive catheters, similar to those used in prostate cancer treatment, is being evaluated. The use of radiation therapy for breast cancer is usually given after surgery has been performed and is an essential component of breast conserving therapy. The purpose of radiation is to reduce the chance that the cancer will recur.

Hormonal Treatment
Hormonal therapy is a very effective treatment against breast cancer that is hormone-receptor-positive. Find out if you should be tested to see if you need other therapies, as well. Sometimes called "anti-estrogen therapy," hormonal therapy blocks the ability of the hormone estrogen to turn on and stimulate the growth of breast cancer cells. Tamoxifen is the drug most commonly used to block estrogen receptors on cancer cells, in effect, denying them the estrogen they need to grow and multiply.

Herceptin
Herceptin is the first humanized antibody approved for the treatment of HER2-positive metastatic breast cancer. Herceptin is designed to target and block the function of HER2 protein overexpression. Research has shown that HER2-positive breast cancer is a more aggressive disease with a greater likelihood of recurrence, a poorer prognosis, and a decreased chance of survival compared with HER2-negative breast cancer.

Comprehensive Breast Centers
Women with breast cancer increasingly are choosing to be treated at comprehensive breast centers that offer up-to-date treatments and the specialists that can provide them. Learn more information on breast cancer and the latest technologies.

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